To a
greater extent religion have significantly contributed to the subordination of
women in African society. Gender inequality
refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender.
It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles
as well as biologically through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal
differences. When religion plays a role
in ―building the social order‖, other social rights arepotentially
compromised. According to Benson as put
by Pope Benedict XV, faced with cultural and political trends that seek to eliminate, or at
least cloud and confuse, the sexual differences inscribed in human nature,
considering them a cultural construct, it is necessary to recall God's design
that created the human being masculine and feminine, with a unity and at the
same time an original difference. Benson) This euphemism of gender difference has
been used to justify gender separation, differing roles, and female
subordination in the practice of most major world religions, beyond Roman Catholicism. While it has been said that the three
monotheistic religions of Christianity, Judaism, and Islam recognize the full
humanity of women, these religions have propagated patriarchal gender
relations.
Gender is a social construct which asserts that the expectations, capabilities
and responsibilities of men and women are not always biologically determined.
The gender roles assigned to men and women are significantly defined –
structurally and culturally – in ways which create, reinforce, and perpetuate
relationships of male dominance and female subordination. Through the process
of socialization within the family, in religious institutions and other social
spheres, boys and girls are conditioned to behave in certain ways and to play
different roles in society. They are encouraged to conform to established
cultural norms by being rewarded or punished for their behavior. At times, the
places women occupy in society are essentialised through claims of innate
predispositions. This conditioning and stereotyping could easily have the
effect of questioning the capability of girls and women to perform certain
tasks. Repeated regularly, it may solidify and become difficult to uproot from
the mental frames of people. Inequality is the disparity of distribution or
opportunity and can be looked at through many positions from a sociologist
standpoint. Religion promotes gender inequality mainly through domination of
church positions by men through religious laws the like the shari’a law that
promotes the subordination of women. Religion also promotes gender inequality through
marriage interference, conservative or fundamentalist religious movements,
often associated with conservative nationalism or right-wing politics.
The
question of space as gendered in AICs remains debatable. On the one hand, women
are marginalized, and on the other, they are at the centre of activities and
thus very significant. There are significant factors which label AICs as a
gendered space. Amongst other reasons, one may identify the notion that this is
all brought about by the fact that only men in these churches would acquire
theological training. In addition, it is also noticeable that men in AICs
attend annual synods and conferences where they get opportunities to venture
into leadership. It is from these arguments that this article is of the opinion
that women are not accorded the same freedom to participate meaningfully. This
system makes it hard for women to speak in meetings or to address meetings.
Power, strength and education are reserved for only a small number.
Generally,
in AICs, the roles of women are those of the periphery and restricted
leadership. There are some AICs where women are still regarded as subjects.
There is a dominant male ideology that has ensured that women continue being
abstract as leaders and more visible as clients in these churches. This
ideology (patriarchy) that approves male headship has been highly influential
in placing women at the fringes of AICs (in those situations when they do). Some
of the AICs still marginalize females by insisting on a
gendered space. This is so because, earlier on, Afro-centric AICs have insisted
that “women are so delicate, frail and totally dependent upon their men[1].
This perception is a major factor that contributes to the positioning of women
in the margins of AICs. According to Sackey (2005:200), this is because women
in AICs spatially inhabit a society different from men and also perceive it
differently[2].
It can also be argued that the marginalization of women in AICs is a result of
the fact that during the formation of most of these churches it was the male
members of the church who played prominent roles.
According to scholar and
activist Frances Kissling (2011) religion lays foundation for gender
discrimination[3]. An
inflammatory claim, but is this overstated or essentially truthful? This is a
multi-layered issue to be dissected, rather than immediately affirmed or
denied. The right to freely practice one‘s religion, as protected by the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, has long been seen as competing with the
promise of absolute gender equality. In most world religions, women and men are
not allowed equal rank. Kissling pointed
out primary evidence of gender discrimination in the lack of female spiritual
or congregational leadership across the spectrum of religious traditions.
Considering, for instance, Tibetan Buddhism, Judaism, Islam and Roman
Catholicism, by precedent a woman has yet to reach the upper tiers of the holy
job ladder. This issue runs deeper than structural hierarchies and positions of
power. Women are generally pushed to the side in many religious practices, kept
separate in their roles and made to feel unequal to men. According to the 1979 Convention
of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW),
discrimination against women is specifically defined as:
Any
distinction, exclusion, or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the
effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment, or
exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on the basis of
equality of men and
women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms on the political, economic,
social, cultural, civil or any other field.
Based on this definition,
gender discrimination has been long embedded in religious institutions. From
the separate door a Muslim woman must use to enter her mosque, to the inability
of a Catholic woman to be ordained as a priest, defined boundaries exist in
most religious traditions to dismiss women‘s roles in places of prayer.
Looking
at the basics of gender inequality in religious sphere it can be ascertained
that it is a learned behavior beginning at the developmental stages of
childhood. According to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development under the
preoperational period (2-7 years of age) during the intuitive phase (4-7 years
of age) a child’s speech becomes more social and has an intuitive grasp of
logical concepts. In addition concepts formed are crude and irreversible which
makes a child extremely susceptible to social perceptions set in place by the
parents who in-turn are governed by their perceptions according to their
particular faith. A part of a child’s upbringing involves what is called social
programming which follows Piaget’s stages of development chart. This social
programming happens when the parents pass on their behaviors to their children
during the intuitive phase. For example religion can be a product of social
programming. By taking a child to a specific church consistently he or she will
come to identify themselves as a part of that particular religion. Within that
religion they will learn what their parents have learned and that is how they
are to behave in accordance with their gender. The gender inequalities
practices from their parents is what the children adopts, thus gender
inequality in religion is a continuous process.
It
can be argued that religion promotes gender inequality because the signifier of
God is understood to be male. According to Nye’s theory pertaining to the
relationship between religion and culture presents some limitations because it
may suggest that religion and culture are the same thing[4].Most
cultures are largely shaped by their dominant religions and vice versa. The 19th
century German scholar Max Müller believed that scholars of religion should
employ sacred texts as their main focal point. Müller suggested that in order
to understand the role religion plays in gender inequality, it is imperative to
study religion from an exegetical perspective while also seeking to understand
its cultural origins[5].
Scholars who ignore this suggestion offered by Müller will conduct their
research “outside the sacred texts and run the risk of straying into murky waters.
The signifier of God is commonly understood to be male. Nye suggests that “the
ideology of a male god is what paved the way for the subordination of women in
many societies. Since androcentricism is
pervasive in the study of religion, God is literally explained as a male
person. Christianity, Judaism, and Islam teach that Adam was created first and
Eve afterwards[6].
This belief was interpreted by some cultures to mean that women are inferior to
men in principle. Thus from this perception it is very clear that the
subordination of women in religion is derived from the fact that the belief of
a male god has been accepted by members of the society thus males dominates
females in religious circles.
Furthermore women are subordinated in religious
circles because of culture. Culture defines the role of women as that of the
caretaker of the home. However the aforementioned concept is heavily challenged
biblically “Wife of Noble Character’s” story as it is told in Proverbs 31. The
moment the African man becomes a Christian, he does not lose his culture; he
simply associates it with his understanding of scripture. From his
comprehension of the teachings of his church, men internalize the religion they
have been taught and see it as correct. For instance, this can be clearly seen
in the way marriage is understood today. The woman was made as a helper
suitable for the man according to Genesis 2: 18. In verse 28 of the same
chapter, both man and woman are mandated to be fruitful and multiply. The
Koran, in Chapter 15, also supports hierarchy in creation. Since belief is
often open to different interpretations, many societies have tried to interpret
scripture in light of social constructions in order to set limitations of what
is deemed acceptable in gender roles. Procreation, as the basis for matrimony,
is often employed by the church in order to advocate heterosexual marriage. The
consensus among many Christians, for instance, is that the existence of
marriage in our society is justified only as far as it can enforce certain
obligations. From a social perspective, these take the form of obligations and
responsibilities serviced in procreation.
Butler
argues further by proposing that “this construct called sex is as culturally
constructed as gender[7].The
potential issue with Butler’s approach is that distinctions between the sexes
cannot be completely ignored; it is helpful to maintain biological distinctions
between the sexes. In Islam, for instance, marriage laws favour of men by
giving them the right to polygamy, concubinage, and easy divorce for men,
originally allowed under different circumstances in a different society, Islam
lent itself to being interpreted as endorsing and giving religious sanction to
a deeply negative and debased conception of women[8].
Judaism considers marriage to be the ideal state of personal existence; “a man
without a wife, or a woman without a husband, is considered incomplete.” Even
ideal existence is not perfect existence and if we look farther into the roles
of husband and wife we will find how a wife may not find herself as happy as
one would think. From the beginning of a marriage at the wedding ceremony, it
can be greatly seen how the woman is considered subordinate in this sphere of
religious culture. Jewish “Orthodox ceremonies do not include a double ring
believing that the giving of the ring to the woman is an act of acquisition of
the exclusive right to her sexual relationship.” Double ring ceremonies are
prohibited for fear that the exchange
would nullify the purchase aspect of this acquisition; and that the woman is
not in fact acquiring exclusive rights to the man’s sexual relationship.” If a
woman were to have sex with someone other than her husband, she would be
committing adultery and any children she would have with the unmarried man she
had sexual relations would never be allowed within the Jewish faith and she
would be ejected from the faith as well. However, if the husband were to have
sex with another woman outside of the marriage, he would not be considered as
committing adultery and the children he would have would not be ejected from
the faith. Thus a true reflection of how religion promotes the subjugation of
women.
Gender
inequality predates independence of Nigeria. Agu (2007) notes that before the
colonial administration in Nigeria, women were generally accorded inferior
status in the scheme of things. Chauraya (2012) argues that gender inequality
in an African set up is common, normal and tolerated, but such tolerance is at
the detriment of women themselves. Acholonu, traced the problem of gender
inequality to the colonial era and missionary activities in Africa when for the
first time, African women saw themselves being forced into a position of sexual
inequality, as the Europeans introduced their philosophy of the voiceless
woman, which is a gender stratification that eventually placed women behind or
below the men, and equated womanhood with instability and weakness through the
popular maxims: “a woman is not to be seen, not to be heard”, “behind every
successful man, there is a woman”, “frailty, thy name is a woman”. Such ideas
were strange to average African woman. The colonial masters were also accused
of excluding women from higher education and from studying science and
managerial disciplines, but were rather reserved for the men. Even religious
subjects like theology and bible study were considered or reserved for man and
thus why up to date male dominates women in church leadership positions. The
system of education reflected the policies of separation of the sexes from
start to finish as they built special schools for the women such as secretarial
studies centers and midwifery schools but denied of admission to the colonially
controlled universities.
Religion,
tradition and culture are often used to justify women’s subordinate position in
society. In all the world’s major religions, religious texts have been
interpreted to reinforce the power of men in society. Recently, there has been
a rise in conservative or fundamentalist religious movements, often associated
with conservative nationalism or right-wing politics. These movements are
generally opposed to the concept of gender equality. Their attitudes towards
gender issues include: a belief that women’s proper place is in the home;
opposition to reproductive rights; blaming women for the decline in moral
values vilifying women who step outside traditional roles; and active
homophobia. In most religions, women are the majority of believers, but it is
men who claim to hold the positions of authority and have the rights, including
the authority to interpret religious texts. In many religions, women have
historically not held leadership positions, and, in some where women have held
leadership positions in the past, they are now denied the same leadership
position today. Some religions still bar women from holding leadership
positions.
Religious
texts are often interpreted and used as a justification for gender
discrimination.
These
arguments are persuasive, because the texts are considered sacred, and hold
divine authority for believers. However, many people are not aware that many
authoritative texts are in fact the result of a process of selection, and thus
reflect views of those making the selection. Almost all religious texts have
been subject to numerous interpretations, reinterpretations and translations,
and therefore may be influenced by the viewpoints of the (usually male)
religious scholars making the interpretations[9].
These scholars are in turn informed by the norms and values of their societies
and their own perceptions about what the status quo should be. The
interpretation of many texts is still subject to debate and revision by
theologians today. Thus the subjugation of women by religious text are men
invented in the sense that the view, usually the quoted biblical texts are what
men use to subjugate women religiously.
The
struggle for gender equality in religion is still an issue despite the progress
that has been made in bridging the divide. It is very helpful to carefully
observe the relationship between religion and culture. The history of religion
may corroborate the idea that religion informs culture and vice versa. It may
also convince individuals that Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are social
constructs deeply rooted in history. Perhaps every one of them, at the time of
their conception, was constructed with specific social interests. Masuzawa’s
19th and early 20th century research focuses on
the historical developments for the origin of religion[10]. In
terms of the relationship between religion and culture, she comes up with a
pertinent suggestion that support the fact that religion and culture often
inform each other; “religion is not an abstraction. It has vital significance
only as it is deeply rooted in the moving process of folk life (Masuzawa, 2005,
p.39)[11].
Careful observation of cultures may suffice in confirming the fact that humans
have, since their existence, been trying to shape social customs in order to
establish a common good. Thus from this it is very clear that the suggestion
being made is that religion off course undermine gender equality but it has
something to do with how the society is traditionally and customarily arranged.
Interpretations of the
Quran have been used to oppress, objectify, and reduce Muslim women to their
bodies. As noted by Iranian legal anthropologist Ziba Mir-Hosseini, ―The Quran
gives women equality, but law is always
man-made and women‘s voices were not there when the law was formed. Furthermore,
well-established interpretations of the Quran have made it social expectation
to repress women. Veiling, an emphasis on female virginity in marriage, and the
Female Genital Mutilation are cultural customs that are often confused with
religious dogma because of their widespread practice in Islamic societies.
Veiling, controversial especially through a Western lense, is a convention that
pertains to the principle of modesty stipulated in the Quran. In the
Quran, both men and women are commanded to lower their gaze and guard
their modesty though not specifically to use a covering, or hijab. While
observing hijab has been represented by most Muslims as obligatory and by
others as a choice, it is almost universally practiced by Muslim women. Muslim
women may veil due to their personal conviction or due to pressures by the
family and Muslim community. Many western critics maintain that this is a clear
symbol of the oppression of Muslim women. Largely, the most indicative basis
for concrete gender roles in Islamic society is Family Law: the legal framework
for marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody. In order to reconcile the
contradictory demands of retaining political power and preserving Muslim identity,
Muslim societies have traditionally placed a special emphasis on Muslim family
values within the community. According to Kazi many Islamist parties use
political influence to retain the design of the family as the fundamental unit
of socio-economic activity, ―trying to replicate pre-Islamic social structures
and apply them to the modern era. The Muslim family, a model based on a sexual
hierarchy and male control over women, is considered a symbol of Muslim
identity[12].
Within this unit, women are traditionally expected to act primarily as wives
and mothers, and to remain withdrawn from public life through the practice of
purdah (female seclusion). Kazi argued that it is under Family Law that a
husband can unilaterally divorce his wife, while she must seek his permission
to initiate the divorce herself. It is under Family Law that a woman is allowed
half the inheritance share available to males who have the same relation to the
deceased. It is under Family Law that women are required to consult their
husbands prior to obtaining employment. It is under Family Law that a woman may
keep any earnings that she receives because the husband is dictated to be the
sole provider for the home, household needs, and his family. And while it is
under Family Law that a woman must not be married against her will, it is
the overwhelming norm that Muslim marriages are arranged. Both legally and
socially, women play a secondary role to their husbands in the family. Many western critics maintain that this is a clear
symbol of the oppression of Muslim women[13].
In many forms of Islam and
countries ruled by Islamic regimes, Shari ‘a law is preserved as an ethical and
legal authority. According to Raday, Shari‘a law is the moral code and
religious law of Islam, based off of principles set forth in the Quran and the
Sunnah. Gender unequal practices allowed under Shari’ a law such as
polygamy, harsh penalties for adultery by married women (e.g. stoning),
unequal inheritance rights, and a husband‘s power of unilateral
divorce— indicate a patriarchal order[14].
Debated cultural practices such as
veiling and Female Genital Mutilation have become normalized in Islamic
societies. Some patriarchal religious norms are not universally agreed upon.
However, in Islam‘s most practiced forms, there are certain andocentric
consistencies like recognition of the husband as the head of the family, and
female restrictions to participation in public life. Although these detrimental
cultural practices are not necessarily mandated in religious documents, certain
practices have come to thrive in religious environments under the authority of
Shari‘a[15].
Especially in theocracies such as Iran, Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt,
Tunisia, and Algeria a combination of legal principles and social expectations
has confined women to a separate sphere in Islamic society.
The study of women in Islam investigates
the role of women within the religion of Islam. The complex relationship between women
and Islam is defined by both Islamic texts and the history and culture of the Muslim world. The Qur'an makes it clear that men and
women are equal, however the Qu'ran states in 4:34, "Men are the
protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has made one of them to
excel the other, and because they spend from their means. Therefore the righteous
women are devoutly obedient and guard in the husband's absence what Allah
orders them to guard." Although the Quran does say this, the superiority
of men is interpreted in terms of strength by the context - men maintain women.
This verse however refers to a relationship between a husband and wife, not as
a society in whole. Thus it is clear that the subordination of women in Islamic
society is traced from the Qu’ran.
In conclusion, as suggested in the essay
it is very clear that religion have tremendously contributed to the intense
subordination of women in the world. Religion has promoted gender inequality
through the use of biblical and Quran verses which emphasize on the superiority
of males over females. In religious spheres women hardly hold influential
positions. The subordination of women have also been shaped by the social and
religion connection.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson,
A.H. (2001). African Reformation: African initiated Christianity in the
twentieth century. Eritrea: Africa World Press
Chitando,
E. (2004). African Instituted Churches in Southern Africa: paragons of regional
integration? African. Journal of International Affairs 7(1&2), 1
Hacking,
I (1999). The Social Construction of What?
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press
Hastings,
A. (1996). The Church in Africa 1450–1950. Oxford: Clarendon Press
Kissling
(2011) Religion Lays Foundation for
Gender Discrimination, The Washington Post, 14 Apr. 2011. Web. 28 Mar. 2013
Mapuranga,
T.P (2013) Bargaining with patriarchy: women Pentecostal leaders in Zimbabwe. Fieldwork
in Religion
Masuzawa,
T. (2005). The Invention of World
Religions: or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of
Pluralism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005.
Moila,
PM. (2002). Challenging issues in Christianity. Pretoria: Unisa Press
Nye, M. (2003) Religion: The Basics. New York: Routledge
Ouzgane,
L. "Women and Islam."
Postmodern Culture 3.3 (1993). Project MUSE. Web. 15 Nov. 2012.
<http://muse.jhu.edu/>.
Raday, F. Culture,
Religion, and Gender.‖ International
Journal of Constitutional Law
1.4 2003, p 663-715. Women's UN Report Network. 2006. Web. 30
Mar. 2013
[2] B.M. Sackey. New
directions in gender and religion: the changing status of women in African
Independent
Churches. Oxford:
Lexington Books, 2005 p 200
[3]F.
Kissling. Religion Lays Foundation for
Gender Discrimination, The Washington Post, 14 Apr. 2011. Web. 28 Mar. 2013
5Ibid p.157
6Ibid p.88
[7] I. Hacking. The Social
Construction of What? Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
1999. p. 1-10
8L. Ouzgane. "Women and Islam." Postmodern Culture
3.3 (1993). Project MUSE. Web. 15 Nov. 2012
10Masuzawa,
Tomoko. The Invention of World
Religions: or, How European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of
Pluralism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2005, p33
11Ibid p39
[12] T. Masuzawa, The Invention of World Religions: or, How
European Universalism Was Preserved in the Language of Pluralism. Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 2005
[13]B.
Rommelspacher. Culture, gender, religion
and the dispute over the headscarf. Lola Press,
16 2001, p44
[14] F. Raday,
Culture, Religion, and Gender.‖ International
Journal of Constitutional Law 1.4 2003, p 663-715.
Women's UN Report Network. 2006. Web. 30 Mar. 2013
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